THE NAVY IN THE CIVIL WAR
Published
1883, 1885
------------------------
VOLUME I
THE
BLOCKADE AND THE CRUISERS
BY
JAMES RUSSEL SOLEY
PROFESSOR, U.S. NAVY
CHAPTER
VI
THE BLOCKADE-RUNNERS
During the
early part of the war blockade-running was carried on from the Capes of the
Chesapeake to the mouth of the Rio Grande. It was done by vessels of all sorts
and sizes. The most successful were the steamers that had belonged to the
Southern coasting lines, which found themselves thrown out of employment when
the war broke out. The rest were small craft, which brought cargoes of more or
less value from the Bahamas or Cuba, and carried back cotton. They answered the
purpose sufficiently well, for the blockade was not yet rigorous, speed was not
an essential, and the familiarity of the skippers with the coast enabled them to
elude the ships-of-war, which were neither numerous nor experienced in the
business. By April, 1861, the greater part of the last year's cotton crop had
been disposed of, and it was estimated that only about one-seventh remained
unexported when the blockade was established. Cotton is gathered in September,
and shipments are generally made in the winter and spring, and considerable time
must consequently elapse before a new supply could come into the market. The
proclamation of the blockade caused for a time a cessation of regular commerce;
and it was only after a considerable interval that a new commerce, with
appliances specially adapted to the altered state of things, began to develop.
Meantime illicit trade in a small way flourished.
The profits
were considerable, though not comparable to those of later years; and the work
required neither skill nor capital.
This guerilla
form of contraband traffic gradually decreased after the first year, though
there was always a little going on from the Bahamas, and on the coast of Texas.
By the end of the second year it was only to be found in out-of-theway nooks
and corners. Little by little the lines were drawn more tightly, as Dupont threw
vessels into the inlets below Charleston, and Goldsborough into the Sounds of
North Carolina, while the blockading force grew from a dozen vessels to three
hundred. In all the squadrons the burning and cutting out of schooners gave
frequent occupation to the blockading forces,, and the smaller fry were driven
from their haunts. As these vessels were captured or destroyed one by one, there
was nothing to replace them, and they gradually disappeared.
Meantime the
blockade was beginning to tell both upon friends-or, to speak with exactness,
upon neutrals-and upon enemies. The price of cotton decreased at the South, and
advanced abroad. The supply was short, the crop of 1861 being about half that of
the previous year; East India cotton had not 'yet come into the market, and the
demand was great. The price of manufactured goods at the South advanced
enormously. The time was ripe for judicious action; and the Liverpool
cotton-merchant, who in the winter of 1861-62 had found ruin staring him in the
face, suddenly awoke to the fact that the ports of the South were an Eldorado of
wealth to the man who could go in and come out again in safety.
With cotton
at fourpence a pound in Wilmington and two shillings a pound in England, the
Liverpool merchant was not a man to hesitate long. Blockade-running from Europe
had already been attempted, but the profits had not been sufficient to outweigh
the risk of capture during the transatlantic voyage. Now, however, when
half-crowns could be turned into sovereigns at a single venture, capitalists
could afford to run almost any risk; and as. it happened, at the very time when
the profits increased, a plan was devised to lessen the danger. Attempts had
already been made to obviate the risk by a fictitious destination to Nassau or
Bermuda; but the capture and condemnation of one or two vessels proved this
device to be a failure. The plan of transshipment was then adopted, and two
vessels were employed, each specially fitted for its peculiar service, one for
the long and innocent passage across the ocean, the other for the short but
illegal run to the blockaded port; and liability to confiscation was thus
reduced to a minimum. Capital was invested in large amounts in the new industry;
shrewd north-countrymen embarked in it, and companies were formed to carry on
operations on a large scale. Officers of rank in the English navy, on leave of
absence, offered their services, under assumed names, and for large
compensation, to the owners of vessels in the contraband trade, and met with
distinguished success in their enterprises. Doubtless there were few of these
last; but the incognito which they preserved has been respected, and neither
their names nor their number have been generally made known.
The
Confederate Government did not hesitate to enter the field and take a share in
the business. Vessels adapted to the purpose were bought by agents in England,
and loaded with munitions of war, and Confederate naval officers under orders
from the Department were placed in command. These vessels cleared under the
English flag, taking out a sailing captain to comply with the requirements of
law.. Later they were transferred to the Confederate flag, and carried on a
regular trade between Nassau or Bermuda and Wilmington or some other blockaded
port. The Government owned three or four such vessels, and was part-owner in
several others. These last were required to carry out cotton on Government
account, as part of their cargo, and to bring in supplies. Among the vessels
wholly owned by the Government was the Giraffe, a Clyde-built iron side-wheel
steamer, of light draft and considerable speed, which had been used as a packet
between Glasgow and Belfast. She became famous under a new name, as the R. E.
Lee; and under the efficient command of Captain Wilkinson, who had formerly been
an officer of our navy, and who was now in the Confederate service, she ran the
blockade twenty-one times in ten months, between December, 1862, and November,
1863, and carried abroad six thousand ,bales of cotton. The cotton was landed at
Nassau, the Government not appearing in the transaction as shipper or owner.
Here it was entrusted to a mercantile firm, which received a large '' commission
for assuming ownership, and by this last it was shipped to Europe under neutral
flags. The firm employed for this purpose is reported to have obtained a
handsome return from its transactions.
The trade was
now reduced to a system, whose working showed it to be nearly perfect. The
short-voyage blockade-runners, destined for the passage between the neutral
islands and the blockaded coast, began to make their appearance. In these every
device was brought into use that could increase their efficiency. Speed,
invisibility, and handiness, with a certain space for stowage, were the
essentials; to these all other qualities were sacrificed. The typical
blockade-runner of 1863-4 was a long, low side-wheel 'steamer of from four to
six hundred tons, with a slight frame, sharp and narrow, its length perhaps nine
times its beam. It had feathering paddles, and one or two raking telescopic
funnels, which might be lowered close to the deck. The hull rose only a few feet
out of the water, and was painted a dull gray or lead color, so that it could
hardly be seen by daylight at two hundred yards. Its spars were two short
lower-masts, with no yards, and only a small crow's-nest in the foremast. The
deck forward was constructed in the form known as "turtle-back," to
enable the vessel to go through a heavy sea. Anthracite coal, which made no
smoke, was burned in the furnaces. This coal came from the United States, and
when, in consequence of the prohibition upon its exportation enforced by the
Government, it could not be obtained, the semi-bituminous Welsh coal was used as
a substitute. When running in, all lights were put out, the binnacle and
fire-room hatch were carefully covered, and steam was blown off under water. In
the latest vessels of this class speed was too much studied at the expense of
strength, and some of them were disabled before they reached their cruising
ground.
The start
from Nassau or Bermuda was usually made at such a time that a moonless night and
a high tide could be secured for running in. A sharp lookout was kept for
cruisers on the outside blockade, and the blockade-runner, by keeping at a
distance, could generally pass them unobserved. If by accident or carelessness
he came very close, he took to his heels, and his speed enabled him to get away.
He never hove to when ordered; it was as hard to hit him as to overtake him; a
stray shot or two he cared nothing for. Even if his pursuer had the advantage of
him in speed, which was rarely the case, he still kept on, and, by protracting
the chase for a few hours, he could be sure that a squall, or a fog, or the
approach of night would enable him to escape. Wilkinson describes a device
which was commonly employed under these circumstances. In running from
Wilmington to Nassau, on one occasion, he found himself hard pressed by a
sloop-of-war. His coal was bad, but by using cotton saturated with turpentine,
he succeeded in keeping ahead. The chase had lasted all day, and at sunset the
sloop was within four miles, and still gaining. The engineer was then directed
to make a black smoke, and a lookout was stationed with a glass, to give notice
as soon as he lost sight of the pursuer in the deepening twilight. The moment
the word came, orders were given to close the dampers, and the volumes of smoke
ceased to pour out; the helm was put hard astarboard, changing the course eight
points; and the blockade-runner disappeared in the darkness, while the cruiser
continued her course in pursuit of a shadow.
Having passed
the outside blockade successfully, and arrived in the neighborhood of his
destination, the blockaderunner would either lie' off at a distance, or run in
close to the land to the northward or southward of the port, and wait for the
darkness. Sometimes vessels would remain in this way unobserved for a whole day.
If they found the place too hot and the cruisers too active, one of the inlets
at a little distance from the port of destination would give the needful
shelter. Masonboro Inlet, to the north of Wilmington, was a favorite resort for
this purpose. At night the steamers would come out of hiding and make a dash for
the entrance.
The
difficulty of running the blockade was increased by the absence of lights on the
coast. In approaching or skirting the shore, the salt-works in operation at
various points served as a partial substitute. Temporary lights were used at
some of the ports to aid the blockade-runners. At Charleston, there was a
light on Fort Sumter. At Wilmington, in the first year, the Frying Pan
light-ship was taken inside the entrance, and anchored under Fort Caswell, where
she was burnt in December, 1861, by two boat's crews from the Mount Vernon. At
New Inlet, a light was placed on "the Mound," a small battery that
flanked the works on Federal Point. In the earlier blockade, the lights of the
squadron served as a guide to blockade-runners. After the general practice was
discontinued, the plan was adopted of carrying a light on the senior officer's
vessel, which was anchored in the centre of the fleet, near the entrance. This
fact soon became known to the blockade-runners; indeed, there was little about
the squadron that was not known and immediately disseminated at Nassau, that
central-office of blockade-running intelligence. Thenceforth it served as a
useful guide in making the channel. After a time the blockading officer
discovered his error, and turned it to account by changing his position every
night, thereby confusing many calculations.
The run past
the inshore squadron was always a critical moment, though by no means so
dangerous as it looked. It was no easy matter on a dark night to hit, much less
to stop, a small and obscure vessel, going at the rate of fifteen knots, whose
only object was to pass by. But the service nevertheless called into action
all the faculties of the blockaderunner. It required a cool head, strong
nerve, and ready resource. It was a combat of skill and pluck against force and
vigilance. The excitement of fighting was wanting, as the blockade-runner must
make no resistance; nor, as a rule, was he prepared to make any. But the
chances, both outside and inshore, were all in his favor. He had only to make
a port and run in, and he could choose time, and weather, and circumstances. He
could even, choose his destination. He always had steam up when it was wanted.
He knew the critical moment, and was prepared for it; and his moments of action
were followed by intervals of repose and relaxation. The blockader on the other
hand, was in every way at a disadvantage. He had no objective point except the
blockade-runner, and he never knew when the blockade-runner was coming. He could
choose nothing, but must take the circumstances as they happened to come; and
they were pretty sure to be unfavorable. He was compelled to remain in that
worst of all situations, incessant watchfulness combined with prolonged
inaction. There would be days and nights of anxious waiting, with expectation
strained to the tensest point, for an emergency which lasted only as many
minutes, and' which came when it was least expected. There was no telling when
or where the blow would need to be struck; and a solitary moment of napping
might be fatal, in spite of months of ceaseless vigilance.
At New Inlet,
which was a favorite entrance, the blockaderunners would frequently get in by
hugging the shore, slipping by the endmost vessel of the blockading line. Even
on a clear night a properly prepared craft was invisible against the land, and
the roar of the surf drowned the noise of her screw or paddles. Having a good'
pilot and little depth, she could generally run well inside of the blockaders.
After passing the line, she would show a light on her inshore side; this was
answered from the beach by a dim light, followed by another, above and beyond
the first. These were the range-lights for the channel. By getting them in line,
the blockade-runner could ascertain her position, and in a few moments, she
would be under the guns of the fort. When the practice of blockade-running was
reduced to a system, a signal-service was organized on shore, and signal
officers and pilots were regularly detailed for each vessel. After the fall of
Fort Fisher, and before the fact was known, the duties of the signal-service
were assumed by the officers of the Monticello, under the direction of Cushing; and two well known
blockade-runners, the Stag and the Charlotte,
were helped in by range-lights from the shore, only to find themselves prizes
when they were comfortably anchored in the river.
Vessels
passed so often between the squadron and the shore that special measures were
taken to stop it. The endmost vessel was so placed as to leave a narrow passage.
When the blockade-runner had passed, the blockader moved nearer and closed the
entrance, at the same time sending up signal rockets. Two or three of her
consorts were in waiting and closed up, and the adventurous vessel suddenly
found herself hemmed in on all sides, and without a chance of escape.
Whenever a
blockade-runner was hard pressed in a chase, it was a common practice for the
captain to run her ashore, trusting to favorable circumstances to save a
fragment of his cargo. Communicating with the forces in the neighborhood, he
would obtain the co-operation of a detachment of infantry, often accompanied by
one or two pieces of artillery, which would harass the parties sent from the
blockading vessels to get the steamer off. At Wilmington, lunettes were thrown
up along the shore, large enough for two guns, and a field-battery of
Whitworth 12-pounders was kept in constant readiness to run down and occupy
them. Sometimes the blockaders were able to command the land approaches, and so
prevent the people on shore from doing mischief; but at other times the latter
had it all their own way. It was no easy matter in any case to float off a
steamer which had been beached intentionally under a full head of steam,
especially if the tide was running ebb; and the fire of one or two rifled guns
placed close by on the beach made the operation hazardous. The only course left
was to burn the wreck; and even then, if the work was not done thoroughly, the
chances were that the fire would be extinguished, and the damaged vessel ultimately
recovered. In July, 1863, the Kate,
one of the new English-built craft, after running to Charleston and being chased
off, put into Wilmington. She attempted to pass the fleet off New Inlet, but
choosing her time badly, she was sighted about five in the morning, and, after a
chase, she was run ashore on Smith's Island, and abandoned. The troops came
down, but did nothing. A party was sent in from the Penobscot to get her off; but this failing, she was set on fire, and
the officer in charge of the boat-party reported that he had disabled her so
effectually that she would be of no further use. Three weeks later, however, she
was floated off by the Confederates, and anchored under the batteries; a
position from which she was cut out with some difficulty.
The Hebe,
a Bermuda steamer, was run ashore a fortnight later on Federal Point, under
circumstances generally similar, except that it was blowing a gale from the
northeast. A boat sent in from the Niphon
was swamped, but the crew succeeded in getting on board the Hebe.
A second boat was driven ashore, and the crew were taken prisoners by the
cavalry on the beach. The Hebe was
covered by a two-gun Whitworth battery and fifty or more riflemen. Other boats
put off, and rescued a few of the men on board the steamer. The last boat
capsized; and the remaining men of the first party fired the ship, and making
for the shore were captured. This time the vessel was destroyed. A few days
later the large vessels of the squadron came in, silenced the battery, and
finally sent in a landing-party, and brought off the guns.
One night in
October of the same year the Venus,
one of the finest and fastest of the vessels in the Nassau-Wilmington trade,
made the blockading fleet off New Inlet. She was first discovered by the
Nansemond, commanded by Lieutenant Lamson. Lamson was always on the alert, and
his work was always done quickly and thoroughly. After a short chase, he
overhauled the Venus. When abeam he
opened fire on her. Four well-directed shells played havoc with the
blockade-runner. The first struck her foremast; the second exploded in the
cabin; the third passed through forward, killing a man on the way; and the
fourth, striking near the water-line, knocked in an iron plate, causing the
vessel to make water fast. This was good practice, at night, with both vessels
making nearly fourteen knots. The blockade-runner headed straight for the
shore, and she was no sooner hard and fast, than the boarders had taken
possession, and captured her officers and crew. As it was impossible to move
her, she was riddled with shells and finally burnt where she lay.
One of the
prettiest captures made off Wilmington was that of the Ella and Anna, by Acting Master J. B. Breck of the Niphon,
in the following November. Breck was an officer of pluck and resource, and he
won a name for himself by his dashing successes on the Wilmington blockade.
About five o'clock on the morning of the 9th of November, as he was returning
along the shore from a chase near Masonboro Inlet, he discovered a side-wheel
steamer to the northward, stealing along toward the entrance of the river.
Outside of her lay a blockader, which opened on her with grape, and the blockade-runner,
finding herself intercepted, steered directly for the Niphon
with the intention of running her down. Breck saw the intention, and fixed on
his plan in an instant. Heading for the steamer, he formed his boarders on the
bow. The blockade-runner dashed on at full speed under a shower of canister, and
struck him a blow that carried away his bowsprit and stem. In a moment, his
boarders were over the rail and on the deck of the blockade-runner; and a few
seconds made her a prize. She had on board three hundred cases of Austrian
rifles and a quantity of saltpeter; and the prize-sale netted $180,000. The Ella
and Anna was taken into the service, and in the next year, under her new
name of the Malvern, became famous as the flagship of Admiral Porter.
The warfare
on both sides was accompanied by a variety of ruses and stratagems, more or less
ingenious and successful, but usually turning out to the benefit of the
blockade-runner. When a steamer was sighted, the blockading vessel that made the
discovery fired signals in the direction she had taken. This was at best an
uncertain guide, as the blockaders could only make a rough guess at the
stranger's position. The practice was no sooner understood than the enterprising
captains at Nassau sent for a supply of signal rockets, and thereafter they
were carried as a part of the regular equipment. Running through the fleet, and
finding himself discovered, the captain immediately fired his rockets in a
direction at right angles to his course; and the blockaders were sent on a
wild-goose chase into the darkness. If there were many of them, they were apt to
get in each other's way; and more than once serious damage was done by a
friendly vessel. The Howquah, off Wilmington, on a dark night, in
September, 1864, had nearly succeeded in making a prize, when the concentrated
fire of the batteries, the blockading squadron, and, according to the belief of
the commander, of the blockade-runner, proved to be too much for him, and caused
him to draw off.
One of the
blockade-running captains relates that, on a certain night, when he found
himself alongside a vessel of the fleet and under her guns, he was told to heave
to. Accordingly, steam was shut off, and he replied that he had stopped. There
was a moderate sea, and the boat from the cruiser was delayed. As it reached the
side of the blockade-runner, the captain of the latter gave the order,
"Full speed ahead," and his vessel shot away toward the channel. A deception
of this kind, whatever may be thought of it abstractly, was one that would be
likely to recoil on the blockade-runners. A vessel or two might avoid being
sunk by pretending to surrender, but a blockader would hardly be caught twice by
such a trick. The next time, instead of hailing before he fired, he would fire
before he hailed; and he would be perfectly justified in so doing. Indeed, it
is a question whether in a blockade so persistently broken as that of
Wilmington, the ordinary rules of action for belligerent cruisers should not be
modified, and vessels found in flagrante delicto, whether neutrals or
not, be destroyed instead of being captured. Certainly, if destruction and not
capture had always been the object, fewer blockade-runners would have escaped,
and possibly fewer would have undertaken the business. There is always a
possibility that a vessel met at sea, however suspicious the circumstances,
may be innocent; but when found running through the blockading fleet, her guilt
is established, and if there is any question about bringing her to-and at
Wilmington there was always rather more than a question-the blockader is not far
wrong whose first thought is to inflict a vital injury.
As it was,
blockade-running was not an occupation involving much personal danger, and
little apprehension was felt about running through the fleet. Calcium lights
were burned, and shot and shell flew thickly over and around the entering
vessel, but they did not often hit the mark. At Wilmington it was perhaps not so
much the inshore blockade that killed the trade as the practice of keeping fast
cruisers outside. Until near the end of 1864, when the stringency of the
blockade became extreme, the captures were not numerous enough to take up more
than a slight margin of the enormous profits that it netted. These profits were
made both on the outward and the inward voyages, and it is hard to say which
were the more extraordinary. The inward cargoes consisted of all kinds of
manufactured goods, and especially of " hardware," the innocent name
under which arms and ammunition were invoiced. The sale of these brought in from
five hundred tc one thousand per cent. of their cost. The return cargo was
always cotton, and the steam-presses at Wilmington, reducing it to the smallest
possible bulk, enabled the long, narrow blockade-runners to carry six hundred,
eight hundred, or even twelve hundred bales, of five or six hundred pounds each.
Even the upper deck was piled up with two or three tiers of bales. As a clear
profit of £30,000 each way was no uncommon result, it is easy to believe that
owners could afford to lose a vessel after two successful trips. It was the
current opinion in the squadron off Wilmington, in the early part of the last
year, that two-thirds of the vessels attempting to enter were successful; and
it has been estimated that out of the sixty-six blockade-runners making regular
trips during the war, forty were captured or destroyed, but only after a
successful career for a shorter or longer period. Gradually, in the last few
months, too many vessels were caught to make the trade profitable; and it was
slowly declining, though it did not cease altogether until the blockade was
raised.
As for the compensation of those who did the work, it may be interesting to give the schedule of rates of pay, on board a first-class vessel, when the business was at its height. The figures are given by "A. Roberts," one of the most famous of the noms de guerre in the contraband trade of Nassau. The rates are for a single trip from Nassau to Wilmington and back. Half the amount was given as a bounty at the beginning of the voyage, and half at its successful completion. The amounts are as follows:
Captain
£1,000
Chief Officer
250
Second and Third Officer
150
Chief Engineer
500
Crew and firemen (about)
50
Pilot
750
Besides the
money received, officers were able to stow away little cargoes of their own, and
so to make on each trip a private speculation; and an occasional cotton-bale was
brought out for a friend, by way of making a handsome present. In fact, the
blockade-running captains, after six months of employment, could afford to
retire with a snug competency for the rest of their life.
The merchants
who withdrew early from the business acquired considerable fortunes; but those
who kept on until the end met with heavy losses. Any speculation that brings
sudden and excessive profits is likely to be overdone; and large amounts of
capital were sunk in the last months of the war. At the close, the thriving
business of Nassau and Bermuda suddenly collapsed, and they reverted to their
former condition of stagnation; while the mercantile enterprise of Liverpool was
directed to other and more legitimate channels.
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